Mon Général!

Historically and in Grand Tactician: Napoleonic Wars (1792-1815) “cavalry is useful before, during, and after the battle.” – Napoleon Bonaparte.*

During the Napoleonic era, cavalry played an important role in battle and during campaigns. Much of the image of Napoleonic cavalry comes from scenes of French cuirassiers charging during a field battle, usually Hollywood-style, with broken formation and each individual eager to get into some slashing action… probably not that accurate a depiction.

Roots and Role

The mounted knight, heavily armoured and highly trained, charging in with a lowered lance, was in a way the peak of European medieval warfare. With the weight of formation and unwavering determination, they were almost an unstoppable force, especially in open field battles (with dry ground). As discussed in the previous unit preview, with the introduction of infantry pike tactics, cavalry charges became a much more dangerous business. 

If we look into the beginning of the 17th Century and the early years of the Thirty Years War, European cavalry had already adapted to the realities of pike and shot warfare. Heavy cavalry, most famously the cuirassiers (“black knights”), had switched their lances to a number of wheellock pistols. Lightly armoured harquebusier cavalry provided supporting firepower from further back, while irregular cavalry, hussars, Cossacks and Croats preyed on weak or unprotected flanks. The role of armour was still relevant, as higher velocity muskets able to penetrate armour from a distance were still rare.

Cavalry commonly formed into squadrons, deep formations resembling squares (the word “squadron” deriving from “square”). Depending upon the school of tactics used by an army, this was usually from 150 men in 5-8 ranks in Flanders (where battlefield cavalry operations were hampered by the terrain) to up to 1,000 men in 10 or more ranks in central Europe, especially among the Catholic forces aligned with the Holy Roman Emperor. These squadrons formed knee to knee in the charge, creating a proper battering ram that was difficult to resist – except with a cohesive and determined pike formation.

The tactic to engage intact pike blocks was called the caracole (from “snail” in Italian). In its most elegant form, one rank at a time would ride forward toward the pike block, turn left just outside the reach of the pikes, and fire their pistols into the infantry, then riding back to the rear of the squadron to reload. This was a rather ineffective tactic when it came to casualties inflicted, but it did immobilize the targeted unit and prevent own casualties. And with sufficient attrition, the infantry formation may have lost its cohesion, and then it would be the moment for a well-timed charge to break the formation. Whether the caracole tactics, as such, were still intentionally used during the first half of the Thirty Years War, or did aborted cavalry charges just resemble them, remains a favourite dispute among historians.

As the Thirty Years War continued, tactics and weapons evolved. In the battle of Breitenfeld (1631), the Swedish cavalry formed into thin lines, only 3-4 ranks deep, with “commanded” musketeer infantry deployed between the cavalry squadrons. When the imperial cavalry charged, the musketeers fired salvoes to break their formation, forcing them to abort the charge, and then the Swedish cavalry countercharged, firing their pistols and charging home with cold steel.

Fast forward a decade, and most cavalry operated in smaller, thin squadrons (usually 100-300 men in three ranks), wore little to no armour, and preferred charging home, firing their pistols as they went. They usually formed the “wings” of a field army, fighting the enemy cavalry wings and trying to outflank the enemy center, where the infantry would be posted. As lighter muskets with improved penetration power were developed, armour no longer provided protection, but became an expensive burden. Speed became more important, which also led to disbanding the commanded musketeers that slowed down cavalry, hampering its tactical flexibility. Instead, the infantry-cavalry hybrid arm, the dragoons, gained importance. Starting as pure infantry using second-rate horses to move fast, but fighting dismounted with their muskets, dragoon tactics steered more toward that of other cavalry especially after the Thirty Years War. 

This development was not universal, though, not even in Europe. The Eastern European steppes were a different kind of battlefield, and there, hussars, Cossacks and other light or irregular cavalry types reigned, most famously the Polish winged hussars, who still preferred their long lances over firepower.

While the battlefield role of cavalry saw quite dramatic change, the operational role saw even bigger ones. Cavalry was always good for scouting ahead, raiding, and of limited use during sieges (the main form of combat during this era!) As the countryside became devastated and couldn’t support large field armies of infantry, the proportion of cavalry increased drastically. And with this, their tactical and operational uses became more apparent and developed further.

Fast forward to the time of the earlier quote (*often attributed to Napoleon, but most likely part of aphorisms written a bit later), where cavalry’s role is becoming more specialized than before. Before the battle, cavalry would scout ahead of the armies and provide them with a screen that masked the army’s movement and intent, leaving the enemy commanders guessing. During the battle light cavalry usually formed on the flanks to screen or to outflank the enemy army, while the heavy cavalry was used to provide shock action and exploitation of breached lines. The true source of victory (turning a tactical victory to an operational or even strategic one) was in the pursuit, which was one of the key tasks for the light cavalry. A well-executed pursuit could often turn retreat into rout and prevent the enemy army from reorganizing. 

Cavalry Organization and Tactics in Italy 1796-97

The century plus after the Thirty Years War, cavalry armament and battlefield tactics had not changed drastically. Three ranks remained the main depth of cavalry squadrons until around the mid-18th Century, when the prevalent view started to shift toward reducing the number of ranks to just two. While the third rank did add to the “weight” of the formation, it usually failed to contribute much in combat. The conservative Austrians still stick to the old school of three ranks. The squadron is the main tactical formation, as the battalion is to infantry. Squadrons are usually formed from two companies (forming the left/right wings), with a strength of between 100 and 250 troopers each. Light squadrons usually are slightly larger. Cavalry regiments form a number of squadrons, usually 4-8. 

The cavalry types can be classified roughly into heavy and light cavalry, following the logic of operational uses described above. The “hay-day” (pun intended) of cavalry, with the use of large independent formations, with supporting horse artillery, is still in the future in 1796. Instead, it is common to form cavalry brigades to be attached to infantry divisions, to support the infantry’s battle, or even to attach single squadrons of cavalry to infantry brigades. Forming light and fast moving vanguards or rearguards from light infantry, light cavalry and horse-artillery is common.

Heavy Cavalry

Cuirassiers (with only breast- and backplates remaining from the full-body armour) were the main heavy cavalry till the 18th Century. By the time of the Seven Years War (1756-63), dragoons had evolved from horse-mounted infantry to heavy (or “medium”) cavalry. During the 18th Century, most nations abandoned the cuirass armour to emphasize speed (and to cut costs).

In 1796, Austrian cuirassiers have a fierce reputation, that of the premier heavy cavalry in Europe. They are some of the few still wearing armour, though a breastplate only. Two elite regiments of carabiniers are similarly armed. The French heavy cavalry regiments (Cavalerie) and elite carabiniers are unarmoured, but their tactical use is similar to their Austrian counterparts - the heavy cuirass was too royalist, or too cumbersome, for the fast- moving style of the Republic (one regiment, the old Cuirassiers du Roi, still retain their cuirasses, though, and are hence called “cuirassiers” in the game). While the name “carabinier” comes from the cavalry firearm “carbine,” and they most certainly are armed with them along with pistols, heavy cavalry do not use their firearms in battles for ranged skirmishing, as they are all about shock action.

Austrian dragoons are formed with the cuirassiers as part of the heavy cavalry arm, and their skirmishing and dismounted days in battles are long gone. Staff dragoons provide the escorts to field commanders. The French dragoons, on the other hand, have retained the training to fight dismounted when needed (as the Spanish front will later highlight). 

As the Italian theater is secondary to that of the Rhine, especially the French have mainly light cavalry and dragoons in Italy.

Light Cavalry

Light cavalry are the eyes and ears of an army. They are more useful outside of a battle than during it, moving fast to reconnoiter, screen, harass the enemy and to raid. They wear no armour, ride slightly less significant horses than their heavier counterparts, and some retain the training to skirmish with their firearms from the saddle.

Austrian light cavalry came in three forms: the chevauxlegers (literally “light horses,” from French “chevaux‑légers”), a multi-role cavalry with the ability to skirmish, like their French counterparts, the Chasseurs-à-Cheval. Hussars and Uhlans have their roots in the Eastern cavalry tradition and tactics. Hussars are the premier light cavalry for speed, ferocity and raiding, while the Uhlans are armed with lances (a practice that would resurface on a larger scale in a few years’ time.) The French also have their hussars, but in addition a small elite party of Chasseurs known as the Guides, hand-picked by Napoleon himself. With the formation of Polish legions, in the game the French may also field a small number of lance-armed light cavalry in Italy. 

Cavalry Firearms and Skirmishing

The cavalry carbines are short weapons with limited range, and firing from the saddle is inaccurate. Most cavalry is armed with carbines and pistols (at least part of the men in a unit), but firing from the horseback is limited to a few specialist units and the use of pistols in melee. In the game, chevauxlegers and chasseurs-à-cheval (and Guides) can use mounted skirmishing tactics. The other cavalry types reserve the use of their carbines to outpost, picket, vedette and escort or guarding duties, or for foraging or fighting partisans. 

Detaching “flankers” (cavalry equivalent of infantry skirmishers, also called vedettes) allow some light and dragoon cavalry units to screen their main formation to harass the enemy with carbine fire, but this too requires sufficient training.

Cavalry Battle Tactics

Heavy cavalry’s main role is in battles, where they provide fast-moving and heavy-hitting capability for the commanders, and they are usually held back in reserve to punch a hole in a wavering enemy line or to counterattack on a decisive moment. Heavy cavalry has the largest horses available, and they rely upon the impact of the charge, where riders form knee-to-knee and maintain a solid front. The charge is executed at the trot (or canter), not breaking into Hollywood-style gallop of individuals, at least if the unit is properly trained. During the charge the tightly packed formation is vulnerable to artillery fire. The light cavalry in the game is versatile and fast. Good uses for light cavalry are, for example, threatening the enemy infantry to force them to form squares, effectively immobilizing them and making them vulnerable to artillery fire, fending off enemy cavalry, attacking unprotected flanks of the enemy, and pursuit.

Prolonged Hollywood -style melees are rare. Charging (or being charged by) a superior foe commonly leads to disengaging, even before contact is made. Charging a well formed infantry in the game, as in real life, is ill-advised, even if the infantry is not formed in a proper square. But, once the infantry is demoralized or their formation is broken, a well timed cavalry charge can be deadly, with the target prone to break in panic even before impact. When coming under fire, a cavalry squadron would usually try to countercharge or simply disengage out of range.

The main cavalry formation is the line, for the French in two ranks and three for the Austrians. As with their infantry, the French cavalry is known to experiment with columnar formations for charges, providing pressure against a narrower part of the enemy front. In the game, it’s essential to keep the horses fresh for charges, otherwise it’s likely the charge falls apart with little effect achieved.

Other commonly used formations are different kinds of columns for fast maneuvering outside imminent contact. While the Austrians are “old school” with their third rank, their light cavalry often use the additional rank to extend the line, for example when engaging in ranged combat or charging. Neither nation uses swarm tactics, such as those commonly employed by the legendary Russian Cossacks.

To maintain the formation and to coordinate maneuvers, officers and senior NCOs are deployed in the front, rear and flanks of the formation. A number of trumpeters relay the commander’s orders to the squadron. To improve command and control in the confusion of battle, the officers and trumpeters usually ride white or gray horses, which will stand out from the rest, providing a beacon for the troopers to follow.

In the accompanying video you can see some of the cavalry formations and tactics in battles:

Cheers,

Grand Engineer Corps