Mon Général!

Napoleonic combat and tactics emphasize battalions, squadrons and batteries as the main tactical units. In Grand Tactician: Napoleonic Wars (1792-1815) they are the playable units - a bit like brigades are in GT:CW (GT1). During the timeline there are big changes in both tactical and operational levels. Battles in 1810- look different from those in the 1790s.

This first unit type preview will focus on Line Infantry, the main tool of the Napoleonic battlefield. As mentioned in the previous dev blog, the first campaign we are developing is Italy 1796-97, so we’ll focus on the main belligerents and tactics of that theater. In later blogs, we will look at the other unit types in similar fashion, while we are developing the campaign layer in the background.

Tactical Development and Firepower

During this era we see Line Infantry battalions march and fight in tightly packed formations, soldiers forming shoulder-to-shoulder to maximize the density of muskets firing per meter of frontline. The main enabler of this was the development of flintlock muskets. A quick recap of how we got here:

During the rise of the musket, which can be observed taking place during the Thirty Years War (1618-1648), matchlock muskets were used. Matchlocks were slow to reload (when compared to flintlocks) and required spacing in formation, as soldiers maneuvered holding burning matches, which could ignite a neighbour’s weapon by accident. Early muskets were so heavy, that a musketeer needed a rest to be able to fire the weapon.

At the beginning of the 17th Century, infantry formations still heavily relied on the pike, a ~5 meter long spear, that could be used to defend against enemy cavalry. Musketeers (or arquebusiers/calivermen – “shot”) were mixed into blocks of pikemen to form pike and shot infantry units, commonly called battles, cuadros, squadrons, battalions… To maximize the shock effect of the “push of pike”, the formations were deep (a Spanish Tercio of 3000 men with pike and shot ratio of 1:1, formed into a tactical “square of terrain”, would have its 1500 pikemen in ~27 ranks deep square). The shot were usually deployed around the pike block to provide firepower. In case of cavalry attack, the shot would seek shelter under the lowered pikes, inside or behind the pike square.

With development of tactical firing systems, reformers started to maximize/optimize firepower. A drill called “countermarch” had musketeer sleeves perform a rotation of ranks, where the front rank fired, and then retired to the rear of the sleeve to reload, while the next rank moved up and fired in turn, etc. Initially with 10 ranks deep formations, this enabled continuous volley fire. During the 30YW, these firing systems developed further, with up to three ranks firing simultaneously to maximize the shock of the volley, or “salvo”, as it became known: the first rank kneeled, second stooped, and third fired standing. 

With this development, along with the introduction of rapid-firing and mobile small caliber regimental guns (and later battlefield mobility for larger caliber artillery), firepower became the dominant factor in infantry tactics. Checkerboards of deep squares/oblongs were replaced with wider linear formations, use of armour diminished and all but disappeared. Bit by bit, we saw the ratio of shot to pikemen increase, with 3:1 or even higher, and lower number of ranks, usually six, being the norm at the end of the 30YW. With the invention of the bayonet, effectively turning each musket also into a “pike” (in a tactical sense), we see pikes disappearing (again) from the battlefield during the Great Northern War (1700-1721)...

Contemporary Line Tactics

Fast forward to the mid-18th Century, and we find infantry armed with flintlock muskets and bayonets. Infantry battalions are formed into thin lines, shoulder to shoulder. Firepower is maximized with controlled volley firing, with the three-rank volley being dominant. Reloading a flintlock is still a complex drill, but much easier and faster than reloading a matchlock: the average rate of fire during combat is already up to one volley a minute, with best drilled troops being able to fire multiple rounds a minute. With the tightly packed ranks, countermarch or other kind of rotation of ranks during combat is no longer used. The peak of this purely linear combat and well drilled professional soldiers sees the Seven Years War and the rise of Prussia.

While “war never changes”, tactics do. Entering the starting point of GT: Napoleonic Wars, the main tactical unit, Line Infantry battalion, is fighting in three ranks. (The rather conservative Austrians are some of the last ones to remove the fourth rank.) This maximizes firepower, with all guns potentially firing, none held behind as a reserve. The Line battalion is a multi-purpose unit: firepower is the main thing, but the bayonet provides offensive shock action against a fragmented enemy line or a tightly packed wall of pointy steel, that charging cavalry will not dare to brave.

Cohesion and form are important. Maneuvers and evolutions are rigorously drilled, as a broken formation is fragile. Movement is slow, as maintaining the line requires constant dressing, a uniform cadence, and standardized movements of individual soldiers.

While small-arms have developed since the bulky arquebuses and matchlock muskets, some rules remain: the weapons are inaccurate (and aiming poor or non-existent when the closely packed mass of men releases a coordinated volley) and produce a thick milky smoke that hinders visibility during battle. Firing beyond 300 paces is not recommended. Real effect is seen when the target is within 150 paces and the men well disciplined. But still, even hundreds of muskets firing may result in a rather limited number of casualties (as can be seen in the video’s Firepower Demonstrations.) Some nations, like Russia, still preferred shock action over musketry.

While the drill manuals contained a wide variety of formations, not nearly all of them were seen commonly used in the actual field of battle. To generalize, the main formations are the line, square and column. Line brings all the weapons to the fight, to fire, or when charging, to break the enemy line. In square the battalion is virtually immune to cavalry charges (if cohesion and morale are maintained!), but vulnerable to artillery fire, and the column provides fastest movement with limited firepower. To screen the battalion’s main formation or to scout the way ahead, part of the men can be detached to act as skirmishers. In this role, the men use open order and loose formation, usually in pairs or threes, using terrain as cover and harassing the enemy with fire. The aim is to disrupt the enemy formation or to intimidate the enemy to open fire before the battalion is within range. Infantry battalions are still commonly reinforced with regimental cannons to bolster their firepower, following the practice from the latter half of the 30YW.

Organization and National Flavour

In the game, the units of different nationalities are not identical and contain different organizational and tactical flavours. The French and Austrian Line Infantry may appear quite similar, but they also have differences – and the commanders tend to use them differently, depending on tactical school. Let’s take a closer look:

France

Entering the Revolution, the French military was in the middle of a tactical debate: which one is superior in contemporary battle, the line or the column? Using battalions in columnar formations provide weight and pressure in a narrow front, while making maneuvering much faster. Line provides superior firepower. In 1791 the main drill manual (which was to serve through the Napoleonic Wars with minor adjustments) described a line oriented, but hybrid approach. But the tactics would evolve not thanks to a manual, but out of necessity, when the quickly formed and ill-trained revolutionary battalions adapted their tactics to overcome their professional but rigid opponents. 

To spread experience among all of the army, the French conducted a series of amalgamations, where old regiments were disbanded and new “demi-brigades” (to avoid using the word that resembled the cursed old regime) were formed from one battalion of regulars and two of volunteers, later the mixing taking place on the lowest levels as well. The resulting organization is what we see in Italy: a demi-brigade with three battalions, each (in full strength) slightly over 1000 men strong.

While professional training is back in the picture in 1796, experience from the early revolutionary wars has formed the French battalion tactics into something quite flexible. While line is still the main fighting formation, battalions can also deploy in open order to skirmish en masse, or use different column formations for fast mobility or even shock action with cold steel. The rigid three rank firing drill has made way to a more flexible two rank fire, where kneeling of the first rank is no longer practiced – it is commonly known, that once the rank knelt it usually tended to remain down, unwilling to stand up again to move. Also, the third rank firing can result in casualties among the other ranks, or at least a major distraction for those few trying to actually aim their fire. The third rank continues to fire if the battalion is firing by rank. 

The French line battalion is organized into nine companies, eight of fusiliers and one of grenadiers. The grenadiers are the tallest, the most experienced and capable fighters of the battalion, many units already sporting the later much more common tall bearskin hat. When preparing for battle, the companies, which are administrative units and can have uneven strength between them, are formed into Platoons (Pelotons) - one per company. The platoons are to have equal strength, as they form the building blocks of the formations and firing systems. The grenadier company may remain with the battalion, or detach to form composite, elite grenadier battalions with companies from other battalions – a practice that became common during the Italian campaign.

A line battalion, if the soldiers are sufficiently trained, can detach one of the platoons to form a line of skirmishers. The skirmishing tactics are not yet formalized, so the formation is usually a loose line of men working in pairs, with a small group of leaders and drummers for signals slightly behind, to maintain communication between the skirmish line and the battalion main body. It’s only later, the voltigeur company will be added to the infantry battalion organization.

Austria

The Austrians have been slower to adapt – probably because there has been no need to, at least not yet. Their tactical guidelines come from the 1760s manuals. They follow the strict Prussian ordre mince, “thin order”, ie. deploying into long lines for battle. The French “clouds of skirmishers” and columnar tactics have already caused some disruption, but no change yet.

The Austrian Line Infantry is divided into “German” and “Hungarian”, depending on the region where the regiment comes from. While Hungarian battalions are slightly larger, tactically there are no major differences. A fusilier (line) battalion has six companies. The regiment’s two grenadier companies will always form separate grenadier battalions with companies of other regiments. While a battalion’s strength is on paper well over a 1000 men, normal campaign strength is, like with the French, usually around 500 men.

While the Austrian Line Infantry is drilled to use many different formations, tactically in battle they use the line as the main formation. Columns are used for long distance movement only. This makes the Austrian Line Infantry seem less flexible than their French opponents.

The six companies each form four platoons (Züge), that are the main building blocks of the different formations. In wars against the Ottomans, the Austrians have adapted a blocky square formation that is quick and simple to form from the platoons. Adapting attack column formations, or masses as they will become known, will happen later, with the need for larger reforms forced on the Austrians after painful defeats in the hands of Napoleon. The main firing method is the three-rank volley, fired either as a battalion, or in a sequence of sub-units.

But, there is some flexibility in the Austrian tactics. The third rank soldiers are the best trained and most capable ones, and the third rank may form 12 additional ad-hoc platoons. These platoons can be used to extend the line, if strength is low, or they can be detached to skirmish. Unlike the French, the Austrian skirmishing tactics are already formalized, with the skirmish line fighting in open order in pairs or threes, supports deployed behind the skirmish line to rotate men, and reserve behind the supports. This means 1/3 of the battalion’s men form the skirmishing element (as opposed to 1/9 in case of the French), which provides further resilience in prolonged engagements, even if the number of actual skirmishing soldiers is similar.

See the different formations and firing systems in the accompanying video:

Cheers,

Grand Engineer Corps